View source for Sequences:Limits

[[File:Archimedes pi.svg|350px|right|thumb|alt=diagram of a hexagon and pentagon circumscribed outside a circle|The sequence given by the perimeters of regular ''n''-sided polygons that circumscribe the unit circle has a limit equal to the perimeter of the circle, i.e. <math>2\pi r.</math> The corresponding sequence for inscribed polygons has the same limit.]]
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As the positive integer <math>n</math> becomes larger and larger, the value <math>n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1{n}\right)</math> becomes arbitrarily close to <math>1.</math> We say that "the limit of the sequence <math>n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1{n}\right)</math> equals <math>1.</math>"
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In mathematics, the '''limit of a sequence''' is the value that the terms of a sequence "tend to", and is often denoted using the <math>\lim</math> symbol (e.g., <math>\lim_{n \to \infty}a_n</math>). If such a limit exists, the sequence is called '''convergent'''. A sequence that does not converge is said to be '''divergent'''. The limit of a sequence is said to be the fundamental notion on which the whole of mathematical analysis ultimately rests.

Limits can be defined in any metric or topological space, but are usually first encountered in the real numbers.

==Real numbers==
[[File:Converging Sequence example.svg|320px|thumb|The plot of a convergent sequence {''a<sub>n</sub>''} is shown in blue. Here, one can see that the sequence is converging to the limit 0 as ''n'' increases.]]

In the real numbers, a number <math>L</math> is the '''limit''' of the sequence <math>(x_n),</math> if the numbers in the sequence become closer and closer to <math>L</math>—and not to any other number.

===Examples===

*If <math>x_n = c</math> for constant ''c'', then <math>x_n \to c.</math>

*If <math>x_n = \frac{1}{n},</math> then <math>x_n \to 0.</math>

*If <math>x_n = 1/n</math> when <math>n</math> is even, and <math>x_n = \frac{1}{n^2}</math> when <math>n</math> is odd, then <math>x_n \to 0.</math> (The fact that <math>x_{n+1} > x_n</math> whenever <math>n</math> is odd is irrelevant.)

*Given any real number, one may easily construct a sequence that converges to that number by taking decimal approximations. For example, the sequence <math>0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333, \dots</math> converges to <math>1/3.</math> Note that the decimal representation <math>0.3333...</math> is the ''limit'' of the previous sequence, defined by <math display="block"> 0.3333... : = \lim_{n\to\infty} \sum_{i=1}^n \frac{3}{10^i}.</math>
*Finding the limit of a sequence is not always obvious. Two examples are <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} \left(1 + \tfrac{1}{n}\right)^n</math> (the limit of which is the number ''e'') and the Arithmetic–geometric mean. The squeeze theorem is often useful in the establishment of such limits.

===Formal definition===
We call <math>x</math> the '''limit''' of the sequence <math>(x_n)</math> if the following condition holds:
*For each real number <math>\varepsilon > 0,</math> there exists a natural number <math>N</math> such that, for every natural number <math>n \geq N,</math> we have <math>|x_n - x| < \varepsilon.</math>
In other words, for every measure of closeness <math>\varepsilon,</math> the sequence's terms are eventually that close to the limit. The sequence <math>(x_n)</math> is said to '''converge to''' or '''tend to''' the limit <math>x,</math> written <math>x_n \to x</math> or <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} x_n = x.</math>

Symbolically, this is:
<math display="block">\forall \varepsilon > 0 \left(\exists N \in \N \left(\forall n \in \N \left(n \geq N \implies |x_n - x| < \varepsilon \right)\right)\right). </math>


If a sequence <math>(x_n)</math> converges to some limit <math>x,</math> then it is '''convergent''' and <math>x</math> is the only limit; otherwise <math>(x_n)</math> is '''divergent'''. A sequence that has zero as its limit is sometimes called a '''null sequence'''.

=== Illustration ===
<gallery widths="350" heights="200">
File:Folgenglieder im KOSY.svg|Example of a sequence which converges to the limit <math>a.</math>
File:Epsilonschlauch.svg|Regardless which <math>\varepsilon > 0</math> we have, there is an index <math>N_0,</math> so that the sequence lies afterwards completely in the epsilon tube <math>(a-\varepsilon,a+\varepsilon).</math>
File:Epsilonschlauch klein.svg|There is also for a smaller <math>\epsilon_1 > 0</math> an index <math>N_1,</math> so that the sequence is afterwards inside the epsilon tube <math>(a-\varepsilon_1,a+\varepsilon_1).</math>
File:Epsilonschlauch2.svg|For each <math>\varepsilon > 0</math> there are only finitely many sequence members outside the epsilon tube.
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===Properties===
Limits of sequences behave well with respect to the usual arithmetic operations. If <math>a_n \to a</math> and <math>b_n \to b,</math> then <math>a_n+b_n \to a+b,</math> <math>a_n\cdot b_n \to ab</math> and, if neither ''b'' nor any <math>b_n</math> is zero, <math>\frac{a_n}{b_n} \to \frac{a}{b}.</math>

For any continuous function ''f'', if <math>x_n \to x</math> then <math>f(x_n) \to f(x).</math> In fact, any real-valued function ''f'' is continuous if and only if it preserves the limits of sequences (though this is not necessarily true when using more general notions of continuity).

Some other important properties of limits of real sequences include the following (provided, in each equation below, that the limits on the right exist).

*The limit of a sequence is unique.
*<math>\lim_{n\to\infty} (a_n \pm b_n) =  \lim_{n\to\infty} a_n \pm \lim_{n\to\infty} b_n</math>
*<math>\lim_{n\to\infty} c a_n =  c \cdot \lim_{n\to\infty} a_n</math>
*<math>\lim_{n\to\infty} (a_n \cdot b_n) =  (\lim_{n\to\infty} a_n)\cdot( \lim_{n\to\infty} b_n)</math>
*<math>\lim_{n\to\infty} \left(\frac{a_n}{b_n}\right) = \frac{\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} a_n}{\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} b_n}</math> provided <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} b_n \ne 0</math>
*<math>\lim_{n\to\infty} a_n^p =  \left[ \lim_{n\to\infty} a_n \right]^p</math>
*If <math>a_n \leq b_n</math> for all <math>n</math> greater than some <math>N,</math> then <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} a_n \leq \lim_{n\to\infty} b_n .</math>
*(Squeeze theorem) If <math>a_n \leq c_n \leq b_n</math> for all <math>n > N,</math> and <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} a_n = \lim_{n\to\infty} b_n = L,</math> then <math>\lim_{n\to\infty} c_n = L.</math>
*If a sequence is bounded and monotonic, then it is convergent.
*A sequence is convergent if and only if every subsequence is convergent.
*If every subsequence of a sequence has its own subsequence which converges to the same point, then the original sequence converges to that point.

These properties are extensively used to prove limits, without the need to directly use the cumbersome formal definition. For example. once it is proven that <math>1/n \to 0,</math> it becomes easy to show—using the properties above—that <math>\frac{a}{b+\frac{c}{n}} \to \frac{a}{b}</math> (assuming that <math>b \ne 0</math>).

===Infinite limits===

A sequence <math>(x_n)</math> is said to '''tend to infinity''', written <math>x_n \to \infty</math> or <math>\lim_{n\to\infty}x_n = \infty,</math> if for every ''K'', there is an ''N'' such that for every <math>n \geq N,</math> <math>x_n > K</math>; that is, the sequence terms are eventually larger than any fixed ''K''.  

Similarly, <math>x_n \to -\infty</math> if for every ''K'', there is an ''N'' such that for every <math>n \geq N,</math> <math>x_n < K.</math> If a sequence tends to infinity or minus infinity, then it is divergent. However, a divergent sequence need not tend to plus or minus infinity, and the sequence <math>x_n=(-1)^n</math> provides one such example.

==Metric spaces==

===Definition===

A point <math>x</math> of the metric space <math>(X, d)</math> is the '''limit''' of the sequence <math>(x_n)</math> if for all <math>\epsilon > 0,</math> there is an <math>N</math> such that, for every <math>n \geq N,</math> <math>d(x_n, x) < \epsilon.</math>  This coincides with the definition given for real numbers when <math>X = \R</math> and <math>d(x, y) = |x-y|.</math>

===Properties===

For any continuous function ''f'', if <math>x_n \to x</math> then <math>f(x_n) \to f(x).</math> In fact, a function ''f'' is continuous if and only if it preserves the limits of sequences.

Limits of sequences are unique when they exist, as distinct points are separated by some positive distance, so for <math>\epsilon</math> less than half this distance, sequence terms cannot be within a distance <math>\epsilon</math> of both points.

==Topological spaces==

===Definition===

A point <math>x \in X</math> of the topological space <math>(X, \tau)</math> is a '''limit''' or '''limit point''' of the sequence <math>\left(x_n\right)_{n \in \N}</math> if for every neighborhood <math>U</math> of <math>x,</math> there exists some <math>N \in \N</math> such that for every <math>n \geq N,</math> <math>x_n \in U.</math> This coincides with the definition given for metric spaces, if <math>(X, d)</math> is a metric space and <math>\tau</math> is the topology generated by <math>d.</math>

A limit of a sequence of points <math>\left(x_n\right)_{n \in \N}</math> in a topological space <math>T</math> is a special case of a limit of a function: the domain is <math>\N</math> in the space <math>\N \cup \lbrace + \infty \rbrace,</math> with the induced topology of the affinely extended real number system, the range is <math>T,</math> and the function argument <math>n</math> tends to <math>+\infty,</math> which in this space is a limit point of <math>\N.</math>

===Properties===

In a Hausdorff space, limits of sequences are unique whenever they exist. Note that this need not be the case in non-Hausdorff spaces; in particular, if two points <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> are topologically indistinguishable, then any sequence that converges to <math>x</math> must converge to <math>y</math> and vice versa.

== Licensing == 
Content obtained and/or adapted from:
* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence Limit of a sequence, Wikipedia] under a CC BY-SA license