Baire's Theorem and Applications

Dense and Nowhere Dense Sets

Dense Sets in a Topological Space

Definition: Let $(X,\tau )$ be a topological space. The set $A\subseteq X$ is said to be Dense in $X$ if the intersection of every nonempty open set with $A$ is nonempty, that is, $A\cap U\neq \emptyset$ for all $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$.

Given any topological space $(X,\tau )$ it is important to note that $X$ is dense in $X$ because every $U\in \tau$ is such that $U\subseteq X$, and so $X\cap U=U\neq \emptyset$ for all $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$.

For another example, consider the topological space $(\mathbb {R} ,\tau )$ where $\tau$ is the usual topology of open intervals. Then the set of rational numbers $\mathbb {Q} \subset \mathbb {R}$ is dense in $\mathbb {R}$. If not, then there exists an $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$ such that $\mathbb {Q} \cap U=\emptyset$.

Since $U\in \tau$ we have that $(a,b)\subseteq U$ for some open interval $(a,b)$ with $a,b\in \mathbb {R}$ and $a<b$. Suppose that $\mathbb {Q} \setminus U=\emptyset$. Then we must also have that:

${\begin{aligned}\quad \mathbb {Q} \cap U=\mathbb {Q} \cap (a,b)=\emptyset \end{aligned}}$

The intersection above implies that there exists no rational numbers in the interval $(a,b)$, i.e., there exists no $q\in \mathbb {Q}$ such that $a<q<b$. But this is a contradiction since for all $a,b\in \mathbb {R}$ with $a<b$ there ALWAYS exists a rational number $q\in \mathbb {Q}$ such that $a<q<b$, i.e., $q\in (a,b)$. So $\mathbb {Q} \cap (a,b)\neq \emptyset$ for all $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$. Thus, $\mathbb {Q}$ is dense in $\mathbb {R}$.

We will now look at a very important theorem which will give us a way to determine whether a set $A\subseteq X$ is dense in $X$ or not.

Theorem 1: Let $(X,\tau )$ be a topological space and let $A\subseteq X$. Then $A$ is dense in $X$ if and only if ${\bar {A}}=X$.

• Proof: $\Rightarrow$ Suppose that $A$ is dense in $X$. Then for all $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$ we have that $A\cap U=\emptyset$. Clearly ${\bar {A}}\subseteq X$ so we only need to show that $X\subseteq {\bar {A}}$.

Nowhere Dense Sets in a Topological Space

Definition: Let $(X,\tau )$ be a topological space. A set $A\subseteq X$ is said to be Nowhere Dense in $X$ if the interior of the closure of $A$ is empty, that is, $\mathrm {int} ({\bar {A}})=\emptyset$.

For example, consider the topological space $(\mathbb {R} ,\tau )$ where $\tau$ is the usually topology of open intervals on $\mathbb {R}$, and consider the set of integers $\mathbb {Z}$. The closure of $\mathbb {Z}$, ${\bar {\mathbb {Z} }}$ is the smallest closed set containing $\mathbb {Z}$. The smallest closed set containing $\mathbb {Z}$ is $\mathbb {Z}$ since $\mathbb {Z} ^{c}$ is open as $\mathbb {Z} ^{c}$ is an arbitrary union of open sets:

${\begin{aligned}\quad \mathbb {Z} ^{c}=...(-2,-1)\cup (-1,0)\cup (0,1)\cup (1,2)\cup ...\end{aligned}}$

So what is the interior of ${\bar {\mathbb {Z} }}=\mathbb {Z}$? It is the largest open set contained in ${\bar {\mathbb {Z} }}=\mathbb {Z}$. All open sets of $\mathbb {R}$ with respect to this topology $\tau$ are either the empty set, an open interval, a union of open intervals, or the whole set (the union of all open intervals). But no open intervals are contained in $\mathbb {Z}$ and so:

${\begin{aligned}\quad \mathrm {int} ({\bar {\mathbb {Z} }})=\emptyset \end{aligned}}$

Therefore $\mathbb {Z}$ is a nowhere dense set in $\mathbb {R}$ with respect to the usual topology $\tau$ on $\mathbb {R}$.

Sets of the First and Second Categories in a Topological Space

Recall that if $(X,\tau )$ is a topological space then a set $A\subseteq X$ is said to be dense in $X$ if the intersection of $A$ with all open sets (except for the empty set) is nonempty, that is, for all $U\in \tau \setminus \{\emptyset \}$ we have that:

${\begin{aligned}\quad A\cap U\neq \emptyset \end{aligned}}$

Furthermore, $A$ is said to be nowhere dense if the interior of the closure of $A$ is empty, that is:

${\begin{aligned}\quad \mathrm {int} ({\bar {A}})=\emptyset \end{aligned}}$

We will now look at two very important definitions regarding whether an arbitrary set $A\subseteq X$ can either be written as the union of a countable collection of nowhere dense subsets of $X$ or not.

Definition: Let $(X,\tau )$ be a topological space. A set $A\subseteq X$ is said to be of The First Category or Meager if $A$ can be expressed as the union of a countable number of nowhere dense subsets of $X$. If $A$ cannot be expressed as such a union, then $A$ is said to be of The Second Category or Nonmeager.

Note that in general it is much easier to show that a set $A\subseteq X$ of a topological space $(X,\tau )$ is of the first category since we only need to find a countable collection of nowhere dense subsets, say $\{A_{1},A_{2},...\}$ (possibly finite) where each $A_{i}$ is nowhere dense such that:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{align} \quad A = \bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty} A_i \end{align}}

Showing that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A \subseteq X} is of the second category is much more difficult since we must show that no such union of a countable collection of nowhere dense subsets from $X$ equals Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} .

For an example of a set of the first category, consider the topological space Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (\mathbb{R}, \tau)} where Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \tau} is the usual topology of open intervals and consider the set Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathbb{Q} \subseteq \mathbb{R}} of rational numbers. We already know that the set of rational numbers is countable, so the following union is a union of a countable collection of subsets of $X$:

Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \begin{align} \quad \mathbb{Q} = \bigcup_{q \in \mathbb{Q}} \{ q \} \end{align}}

Each of the sets Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \{ q \}} is nowhere dense. Therefore $\mathbb {Q}$ can be expressed as the union of a countable collection of nowhere dense subsets of Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} , so Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \mathbb{Q}} is of the first category.

The Baire Category Theorem

Lemma 1: Let $(X,\tau )$ be a topological space and let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A \subseteq X} . If Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A} is a nowhere dense set then for every $U\in \tau$ there exists a Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle B \subseteq U} such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A \cap \bar{B} = \emptyset} .

Theorem 1 (The Baire Category Theorem): Every complete metric space is of the second category.

• Proof: Let $X$ be a complete metric space. Then every Cauchy sequence Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (x_n)_{n=1}^{\infty}} of elements from Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} converges in $X$. Suppose that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} is of the first category. Then there exists a countable collection of nowhere dense sets Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_1, A_2, ... \subset X} such that:

${\begin{aligned}\quad X=\bigcup _{i=1}^{\infty }A_{i}\end{aligned}}$

• Let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle U \subset X} . For each nowhere dense set Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_i} , $i\in \{1,2,...\}$ there exists a set Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle B_i \subset U} such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_i \cap \bar{B_i} = \emptyset} .

• Let $B_{1}(x_{1},r)\subset U$ be a ball contained in Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle U} such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_1 \cap \bar{B_1} = \emptyset} . Let $B_{2}\left(x_{2},{\frac {r}{2}}\right)\subseteq B_{1}$ be a ball contained in Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle B_1} whose radius is Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{r}{2}} and such that $A_{2}\cap {\bar {B_{2}}}=\emptyset$. Repeat this process. For each Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \in \{ 2, 3, ... \}} let Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle B_n \left (x_n, \frac{r}{n} \right )} be a ball contained in $B_{n-1}$ whose radius is Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{r}{n}} and such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_n \cap \bar{B_n} = \emptyset} and such that $A_{n}\cap {\bar {B_{n}}}=\emptyset$.

• The sequence Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (x_n)_{n=1}^{\infty}} is Cauchy since as Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \in \mathbb{N}} gets large, the elements $x_{n}$ are very close. Since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} is a complete metric space, we must have that this Cauchy sequence therefore converges to some Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle p \in X} , i.e., $\lim _{n\to \infty }x_{n}=p$.

• Now notice that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x \in \bar{B_n}} for all Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \in \mathbb{N}} because if not, then there exists an Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle m \in \mathbb{N}} such that Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x \not \in \bar{B_n}} for all Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n \geq m} . Hence Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (\bar{B_n})^c} is open and so there exists an open ball Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} such that $x\in B\subset ({\bar {B_{n}}})^{c}$ but then Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \lim_{x \to \infty} x_n \neq x} because Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x_m \not \in B} for all Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle m \geq n} .

• Since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x \in \bar{B_n}} for all $n\in \mathbb {N}$ then since Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle A_n \cap \bar{B_n} = \emptyset} we must have that then Failed to parse (MathML with SVG or PNG fallback (recommended for modern browsers and accessibility tools): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x \not\in A_n }

Licensing

Content obtained and/or adapted from:

• Dense and Nowhere Dense Sets in a Topological Space, mathonline.wikidot.com under a CC BY-SA license
• Sets of the First and Second Categories in a Topological Space, mathonline.wikidot.com under a CC BY-SA license
• The Baire Category Theorem, mathonline.wikidot.com under a CC BY-SA license