Difference between revisions of "Inverse Functions"

Revision as of 13:23, 16 September 2021

In mathematics, an inverse function (or anti-function) is a function that "reverses" another function: if the function $f$ applied to an input $x$ gives a result of $y$ , then applying its inverse function $g$ to $y$ gives the result $x$ , i.e., $g (y) = x$ if and only if $f (x) = y$ . The inverse function of $f$ is also denoted as $f^{-1}$ .

As an example, consider the real-valued function of a real variable given by $f (x) = 5 x - 7$ . Thinking of this as a step-by-step procedure (namely, take a number $x$ , multiply it by 5, then subtract 7 from the result), to reverse this and get $x$ back from some output value, say $y$ , we would undo each step in reverse order. In this case, it means to add 7 to $y$ , and then divide the result by 5. In functional notation, this inverse function would be given by,

g(y)={\frac {y+7}{5}}.

With $y = 5 x - 7$ we have that $f (x) = y$ and $g (y) = x$ .

Not all functions have inverse functions. Those that do are called invertible. For a function $f : X \to Y$ to have an inverse, it must have the property that for every $y$ in $Y$ , there is exactly one $x$ in $X$ such that $f (x) = y$ . This property ensures that a function $g : Y \to X$ exists with the necessary relationship with $f$ .

Definitions

If

f

maps

X

to

Y

, then

f -1

maps

Y

back to

X

.

Let $f$ be a function whose domain is the set $X$ , and whose codomain is the set $Y$ . Then $f$ is invertible if there exists a function $g$ with domain $Y$ and codomain $X$ , with the property:

f(x)=y\,\,\Leftrightarrow \,\,g(y)=x.

If $f$ is invertible, then the function $g$ is unique, which means that there is exactly one function $g$ satisfying this property. Moreover, it also follows that the ranges of $g$ and $f$ equal their respective codomains. The function $g$ is called the inverse of $f$ , and is usually denoted as {{math|f a notation introduced by John Frederick William Herschel in 1813.

Stated otherwise, a function, considered as a binary relation, has an inverse if and only if the converse relation is a function on the codomain $Y$ , in which case the converse relation is the inverse function. Not all functions have an inverse. For a function to have an inverse, each element $y \in Y$ must correspond to no more than one $x \in X$ ; a function $f$ with this property is called one-to-one or an injection. If $f -1$ is to be a function on $Y$ , then each element $y \in Y$ must correspond to some $x \in X$ . Functions with this property are called surjections. This property is satisfied by definition if $Y$ is the image of $f$ , but may not hold in a more general context. To be invertible, a function must be both an injection and a surjection. Such functions are called bijections. The inverse of an injection $f : X \to Y$ that is not a bijection (that is, not a surjection), is only a partial function on $Y$ , which means that for some $y \in Y$ , $f -1 (y)$ is undefined. If a function $f$ is invertible, then both it and its inverse function $f -1$ are bijections.

Another convention is used in the definition of functions, referred to as the "set-theoretic" or "graph" definition using ordered pairs, which makes the codomain and image of the function the same. Under this convention, all functions are surjective, so bijectivity and injectivity are the same. Authors using this convention may use the phrasing that a function is invertible if and only if it is an injection. The two conventions need not cause confusion, as long as it is remembered that in this alternate convention, the codomain of a function is always taken to be the image of the function.

Properties

Since a function is a special type of binary relation, many of the properties of an inverse function correspond to properties of converse relations.

Uniqueness

If an inverse function exists for a given function $f$ , then it is unique. This follows since the inverse function must be the converse relation, which is completely determined by $f$ .

Symmetry

There is a symmetry between a function and its inverse. Specifically, if $f$ is an invertible function with domain $X$ and codomain $Y$ , then its inverse $f -1$ has domain $Y$ and image $X$ , and the inverse of $f -1$ is the original function $f$ . In symbols, for functions $f : X \to Y$ and $f -1 : Y \to X$ ,

f^{-1}\circ f=\operatorname {id} _{X}

and

f\circ f^{-1}=\operatorname {id} _{Y}.

This statement is a consequence of the implication that for $f$ to be invertible it must be bijective. The involutory nature of the inverse can be concisely expressed by

\left(f^{-1}\right)^{-1}=f.

The inverse of

g \circ f

is

f -1 \circ g -1

.

The inverse of a composition of functions is given by

(g\circ f)^{-1}=f^{-1}\circ g^{-1}.

Notice that the order of $g$ and $f$ have been reversed; to undo $f$ followed by $g$ , we must first undo $g$ , and then undo $f$ .

For example, let $f (x) = 3 x$ and let $g (x) = x + 5$ . Then the composition $g \circ f$ is the function that first multiplies by three and then adds five,

(g\circ f)(x)=3x+5.

To reverse this process, we must first subtract five, and then divide by three,

(g\circ f)^{-1}(x)={\tfrac {1}{3}}(x-5).

This is the composition $(f -1 \circ g -1)(x)$ .

Self-inverses

If $X$ is a set, then the identity function on $X$ is its own inverse:

{\operatorname {id} _{X}}^{-1}=\operatorname {id} _{X}.

More generally, a function $f : X \to X$ is equal to its own inverse, if and only if the composition $f \circ f$ is equal to $id X$ . Such a function is called an involution.

Resources

Inverse Functions, Lumen Learning
Introduction to Inverse Function Video, Khan Academy

References

Hall, Arthur Graham; Frink, Fred Goodrich (1909). "Article 14: Inverse trigonometric functions". Written at Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. Plane Trigonometry. New York: Henry Holt & Company. pp. 15–16. Retrieved 2017-08-12. α = arcsin m This notation is universally used in Europe and is fast gaining ground in this country. A less desirable symbol, α = sin-1 m, is still found in English and American texts. The notation α = inv sin m is perhaps better still on account of its general applicability. […] A similar symbolic relation holds for the other trigonometric functions. It is frequently read 'arc-sine m' or 'anti-sine m,' since two mutually inverse functions are said each to be the anti-function of the other.
Keisler, Howard Jerome. "Differentiation". Retrieved 2015-01-24. §2.4
Scheinerman, Edward R. (2013). Mathematics: A Discrete Introduction. Brooks/Cole. p. 173. ISBN 978-0840049421.
"Comprehensive List of Algebra Symbols". Math Vault. 2020-03-25. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
"Inverse Functions". www.mathsisfun.com. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Inverse Function". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-09-08.
Devlin 2004, p. 101, Theorem 4.5.1
Herschel, John Frederick William (1813) [1812-11-12]. "On a Remarkable Application of Cotes's Theorem". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. London: Royal Society of London, printed by W. Bulmer and Co., Cleveland-Row, St. James's, sold by G. and W. Nicol, Pall-Mall. 103 (Part 1): 8–26 [10]. doi:10.1098/rstl.1813.0005. JSTOR 107384. S2CID 118124706.
Herschel, John Frederick William (1820). "Part III. Section I. Examples of the Direct Method of Differences". A Collection of Examples of the Applications of the Calculus of Finite Differences. Cambridge, UK: Printed by J. Smith, sold by J. Deighton & sons. pp. 1–13 [5–6]. Archived from the original on 2020-08-04. Retrieved 2020-08-04. [1] (NB. Inhere, Herschel refers to his 1813 work and mentions Hans Heinrich Bürmann's older work.)
Peirce, Benjamin (1852). Curves, Functions and Forces. I (new ed.). Boston, USA. p. 203.
Peano, Giuseppe (1903). Formulaire mathématique (in French). IV. p. 229.
Cajori, Florian (1952) [March 1929]. "§472. The power of a logarithm / §473. Iterated logarithms / §533. John Herschel's notation for inverse functions / §535. Persistence of rival notations for inverse functions / §537. Powers of trigonometric functions". A History of Mathematical Notations. 2 (3rd corrected printing of 1929 issue, 2nd ed.). Chicago, USA: Open court publishing company. pp. 108, 176–179, 336, 346. ISBN 978-1-60206-714-1. Retrieved 2016-01-18. […] §473. Iterated logarithms […] We note here the symbolism used by Pringsheim and Molk in their joint Encyclopédie article: "2logb a = logb (logb a), …, k+1logb a = logb (klogb a)." […] §533. John Herschel's notation for inverse functions, sin−1 x, tan−1 x, etc., was published by him in the Philosophical Transactions of London, for the year 1813. He says (p. 10): "This notation cos.−1 e must not be understood to signify 1/cos. e, but what is usually written thus, arc (cos.=e)." He admits that some authors use cos.m A for (cos. A)m, but he justifies his own notation by pointing out that since d2 x, Δ3 x, Σ2 x mean dd x, ΔΔΔ x, ΣΣ x, we ought to write sin.2 x for sin. sin. x, log.3 x for log. log. log. x. Just as we write d−n V=∫n V, we may write similarly sin.−1 x=arc (sin.=x), log.−1 x.=cx. Some years later Herschel explained that in 1813 he used fn(x), f−n(x), sin.−1 x, etc., "as he then supposed for the first time. The work of a German Analyst, Burmann, has, however, within these few months come to his knowledge, in which the same is explained at a considerably earlier date. He[Burmann], however, does not seem to have noticed the convenience of applying this idea to the inverse functions tan−1, etc., nor does he appear at all aware of the inverse calculus of functions to which it gives rise." Herschel adds, "The symmetry of this notation and above all the new and most extensive views it opens of the nature of analytical operations seem to authorize its universal adoption."[a] […] §535. Persistence of rival notations for inverse function.— […] The use of Herschel's notation underwent a slight change in Benjamin Peirce's books, to remove the chief objection to them; Peirce wrote: "cos[−1] x," "log[−1] x."[b] […] §537. Powers of trigonometric functions.—Three principal notations have been used to denote, say, the square of sin x, namely, (sin x)2, sin x2, sin2 x. The prevailing notation at present is sin2 x, though the first is least likely to be misinterpreted. In the case of sin2 x two interpretations suggest themselves; first, sin x · sin x; second,[c] sin (sin x). As functions of the last type do not ordinarily present themselves, the danger of misinterpretation is very much less than in case of log2 x, where log x · log x and log (log x) are of frequent occurrence in analysis. […] The notation sinn x for (sin x)n has been widely used and is now the prevailing one. […] (xviii+367+1 pages including 1 addenda page) (NB. ISBN and link for reprint of 2nd edition by Cosimo, Inc., New York, USA, 2013.)
Smith, Eggen & St. Andre 2006, p. 202, Theorem 4.9
Wolf 1998, p. 198
Fletcher & Patty 1988, p. 116, Theorem 5.1
Wolf 1998, p. 208, Theorem 7.2
Smith, Eggen & St. Andre 2006, pg. 141 Theorem 3.3(a)
Lay 2006, p. 71, Theorem 7.26

Difference between revisions of "Inverse Functions"

Revision as of 13:23, 16 September 2021

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@@ Line 16: / Line 16: @@
 : <math>f(x) = y\,\,\Leftrightarrow\,\,g(y) = x.</math>
-If {{mvar|f}} is invertible, then the function {{mvar|g}} is unique,<ref>{{harvnb|Devlin|2004|loc=p. 101, Theorem 4.5.1}}</ref> which means that there is exactly one function {{mvar|g}} satisfying this property. Moreover, it also follows that the ranges of {{mvar|g}} and {{mvar|f}} equal their respective codomains.
+If {{mvar|f}} is invertible, then the function {{mvar|g}} is unique, which means that there is exactly one function {{mvar|g}} satisfying this property. Moreover, it also follows that the ranges of {{mvar|g}} and {{mvar|f}} equal their respective codomains.
 The function {{mvar|g}} is called ''the'' inverse of {{mvar|f}}, and is usually denoted as {{math|''f'' a notation introduced by John Frederick William Herschel in 1813.
 Stated otherwise, a function, considered as a binary relation, has an inverse if and only if the converse relation is a function on the codomain {{mvar|Y}}, in which case the converse relation is the inverse function.
-Not all functions have an inverse. For a function to have an inverse, each element {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}} must correspond to no more than one {{math|''x'' ∈ ''X''}}; a function {{mvar|f}} with this property is called one-to-one or an [[injective function|injection]]. If {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>}} is to be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] on {{mvar|Y}}, then each element {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}} must correspond to some {{math|''x'' ∈ ''X''}}. Functions with this property are called surjections. This property is satisfied by definition if {{mvar|Y}} is the image of {{mvar|f}}, but may not hold in a more general context. To be invertible, a function must be both an injection and a surjection. Such functions are called [[bijections]]. The inverse of an injection {{math| ''f'': ''X'' → ''Y''}} that is not a bijection (that is, not a surjection), is only a [[partial function]] on {{mvar|Y}}, which means that for some {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}}, {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>(''y'')}} is undefined. If a function {{mvar|f}} is invertible, then both it and its inverse function {{math|''f''<sup>−1</sup>}} are bijections.
+Not all functions have an inverse. For a function to have an inverse, each element {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}} must correspond to no more than one {{math|''x'' ∈ ''X''}}; a function {{mvar|f}} with this property is called one-to-one or an injection. If {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>}} is to be a function on {{mvar|Y}}, then each element {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}} must correspond to some {{math|''x'' ∈ ''X''}}. Functions with this property are called surjections. This property is satisfied by definition if {{mvar|Y}} is the image of {{mvar|f}}, but may not hold in a more general context. To be invertible, a function must be both an injection and a surjection. Such functions are called bijections. The inverse of an injection {{math| ''f'': ''X'' → ''Y''}} that is not a bijection (that is, not a surjection), is only a [[partial function]] on {{mvar|Y}}, which means that for some {{math|''y'' ∈ ''Y''}}, {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>(''y'')}} is undefined. If a function {{mvar|f}} is invertible, then both it and its inverse function {{math|''f''<sup>−1</sup>}} are bijections.
-Another convention is used in the definition of functions, referred to as the "set-theoretic" or "graph" definition using [[ordered pair]]s, which makes the codomain and image of the function the same. Under this convention, all functions are surjective, so bijectivity and injectivity are the same. Authors using this convention may use the phrasing that a function is invertible if and only if it is an injection. The two conventions need not cause confusion, as long as it is remembered that in this alternate convention, the codomain of a function is always taken to be the image of the function.
+Another convention is used in the definition of functions, referred to as the "set-theoretic" or "graph" definition using ordered pairs, which makes the codomain and image of the function the same. Under this convention, all functions are surjective, so bijectivity and injectivity are the same. Authors using this convention may use the phrasing that a function is invertible if and only if it is an injection. The two conventions need not cause confusion, as long as it is remembered that in this alternate convention, the codomain of a function is always taken to be the image of the function.
-===Example: Squaring and square root functions===
-<!-- section title used in #internal links -->
-The function {{math|''f'': '''R''' → [0,∞)}} given by {{math|1=''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>}} is not injective, since each possible result ''y'' (except 0) corresponds to two different starting points in {{mvar|X}} – one positive and one negative, and so this function is not invertible. With this type of function, it is impossible to deduce a (unique) input from its output. Such a function is called non-injective or, in some applications, information-losing.
-If the domain of the function is restricted to the nonnegative reals, that is, the function is redefined to be {{math|''f'': [0, ∞) → [0, ∞)}} with the same ''rule'' as before, then the function is bijective and so, invertible. The inverse function here is called the ''(positive) square root function''.
-<!-- Repetitive. To be held for a short time until refactor is finished.
-===Inverses in higher mathematics===
-The definition given above is commonly adopted in set theory and calculus. In higher mathematics, the notation
-:<math>f\colon X \to Y </math>
-means "{{mvar|f}} is a function mapping elements of a set {{mvar|X}} to elements of a set {{mvar|Y }}". The source, {{mvar|X}}, is called the domain of {{mvar|f}}, and the target, {{mvar|Y}}, is called the [[codomain]]. The codomain contains the range of {{mvar|f}} as a subset, and is part of the definition of {{mvar|f}}.
-When using codomains, the inverse of a function {{math| ''f'': ''X'' → ''Y''}} is required to have domain {{mvar|Y}} and codomain {{mvar|X}}. For the inverse to be defined on all of {{mvar|Y}}, every element of {{mvar|Y}} must lie in the range of the function {{mvar|f}}. A function with this property is called ''onto'' or ''surjective''. Thus, a function with a codomain is invertible if and only if it is both ''injective'' (one-to-one) and surjective (onto). Such a function is called a one-to-one correspondence or a [[bijection]], and has the property that every element {{math| ''y'' ∈ ''Y''}} corresponds to exactly one element {{math| ''x'' ∈ ''X''}}.
--->
-===Inverses and composition===
-If {{mvar|f}} is an invertible function with domain {{mvar|X}} and codomain {{mvar|Y}}, then
-: <math> f^{-1}\left( \, f(x) \, \right) = x</math>, for every <math>x \in X</math>; and <math> f\left( \, f^{-1}(y) \, \right) = y</math>, for every <math>y \in Y. </math>.
-Using the composition of functions, we can rewrite this statement as follows:
-: <math> f^{-1} \circ f = \operatorname{id}_X</math> and <math>f \circ f^{-1} = \operatorname{id}_Y, </math>
-where {{math|id<sub>''X''</sub>}} is the identity function on the set {{mvar|X}}; that is, the function that leaves its argument unchanged. In category theory, this statement is used as the definition of an inverse morphism.
-===Notation===
-While the notation {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>(''x'')}} might be misunderstood,<ref name=":2" /> {{math|(''f''(''x''))<sup>−1</sup>}} certainly denotes the multiplicative inverse of {{math|''f''(''x'')}} and has nothing to do with the inverse function of {{mvar|f}}.
-In keeping with the general notation, some English authors use expressions like {{math|sin<sup>−1</sup>(''x'')}} to denote the inverse of the sine function applied to {{mvar|x}} (actually a [[#Partial inverses|partial inverse]]; see below). Other authors feel that this may be confused with the notation for the multiplicative inverse of {{math|sin (''x'')}}, which can be denoted as {{math|(sin (''x''))<sup>−1</sup>}}. To avoid any confusion, an inverse trigonometric function is often indicated by the prefix "arc" (for Latin {{lang|lat|arcus}}). Similarly, the inverse of a hyperbolic function is indicated by the prefix "ar" (for Latin {{lang|lat|ārea}}). For instance, the inverse of the hyperbolic sine function is typically written as arsinh(''x'')}}. Other inverse special functions are sometimes prefixed with the prefix "inv", if the ambiguity of the {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>}} notation should be avoided.
 ==Properties==
@@ Line 91: / Line 59: @@
 : <math>{\operatorname{id}_X}^{-1} = \operatorname{id}_X.</math>
-More generally, a function {{math| ''f'' : ''X'' → ''X''}} is equal to its own inverse, if and only if the composition {{math| ''f'' ∘ ''f''}} is equal to {{math|id<sub>''X''</sub>}}. Such a function is called an [[Involution (mathematics)|involution]].
+More generally, a function {{math| ''f'' : ''X'' → ''X''}} is equal to its own inverse, if and only if the composition {{math| ''f'' ∘ ''f''}} is equal to {{math|id<sub>''X''</sub>}}. Such a function is called an involution.
-== Real-world examples ==
+==Resources==
-* Let {{mvar|f}} be the function that converts a temperature in degrees [[Celsius]] to a temperature in degrees [[Fahrenheit]], <math display="block"> F = f(C) = \tfrac95 C + 32 ;</math> then its inverse function converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, <math display="block"> C = f^{-1}(F) = \tfrac59 (F - 32) ,</math><ref name=":1" /> since <math display="block">
+* [https://courses.lumenlearning.com/collegealgebra2017/chapter/introduction-inverse-functions/ Inverse Functions], Lumen Learning
-\begin{align}
+* [https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:functions/x2f8bb11595b61c86:inverse-functions-intro/v/introduction-to-function-inverses Introduction to Inverse Function Video], Khan Academy
-f^{-1} (f(C)) = {} & f^{-1}\left(  \tfrac95 C + 32 \right) = \tfrac59 \left( (\tfrac95 C + 32 ) - 32 \right) =  C, \\
-& \text{for every value of } C, \text{ and } \\[6pt]
-f\left(f^{-1}(F)\right) = {} & f\left(\tfrac59 (F - 32)\right) = \tfrac95 \left(\tfrac59 (F - 32)\right) + 32 = F, \\
-& \text{for every value of } F.
-\end{align}
-</math>
-* Suppose {{mvar|f}} assigns each child in a family its birth year. An inverse function would output which child was born in a given year. However, if the family children born in the same year (for instance, twins or triplets, etc.) then the output cannot be known when the input is the common birth year. As well, if a year is given in which no child was born then a child cannot be named. But if each child was born in a separate year, and if we restrict attention to the three years in which a child was born, then we do have an inverse function. For example, <math display="block">\begin{align}
- f(\text{Allan})&=2005 , \quad & f(\text{Brad})&=2007 , \quad & f(\text{Cary})&=2001 \\
- f^{-1}(2005)&=\text{Allan} , \quad & f^{-1}(2007)&=\text{Brad} , \quad & f^{-1}(2001)&=\text{Cary}
-\end{align}
-</math>
-* Let {{mvar|R}} be the function that leads to an {{mvar|x}} percentage rise of some quantity, and {{mvar|F}} be the function producing an {{mvar|x}} percentage fall. Applied to $100 with {{mvar|x}} = 10%, we find that applying the first function followed by the second does not restore the original value of $100, demonstrating the fact that, despite appearances, these two functions are not inverses of each other.
-* The formula to calculate the pH of a solution is pH=-log10[H+]. In many cases we need to find the concentration of acid from a pH measurement. The inverse function [H+]=10^-pH is used.
-==Generalizations==
-===Partial inverses===
-[[Image:Inverse square graph.svg|thumb|right|The square root of {{mvar|x}} is a partial inverse to {{math|1= ''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>}}.]]
-Even if a function {{mvar|f}} is not one-to-one, it may be possible to define a '''partial inverse''' of {{mvar|f}} by [[Function (mathematics)#Restrictions and extensions|restricting]] the domain. For example, the function
-: <math>f(x) = x^2</math>
-is not one-to-one, since {{math|1= ''x''<sup>2</sup> = (−''x'')<sup>2</sup>}}. However, the function becomes one-to-one if we restrict to the domain {{math| ''x'' ≥ 0}}, in which case
-: <math>f^{-1}(y) = \sqrt{y} . </math>
-(If we instead restrict to the domain {{math| ''x'' ≤ 0}}, then the inverse is the negative of the square root of {{mvar|y}}.)  Alternatively, there is no need to restrict the domain if we are content with the inverse being a [[multivalued function]]:
-: <math>f^{-1}(y) = \pm\sqrt{y} . </math>
-[[File:Inversa d'una cúbica gràfica.png|right|thumb|The inverse of this [[cubic function]] has three branches.]]
-Sometimes, this multivalued inverse is called the '''full inverse''' of {{mvar|f}}, and the portions (such as {{sqrt|{{mvar|x}}}} and −{{sqrt|{{mvar|x}}}}) are called ''branches''. The most important branch of a multivalued function (e.g. the positive square root) is called the ''[[principal branch]]'', and its value at {{mvar|y}} is called the ''principal value'' of {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>(''y'')}}.
-For a continuous function on the real line, one branch is required between each pair of [[minima and maxima|local extrema]]. For example, the inverse of a [[cubic function]] with a local maximum and a local minimum has three branches (see the adjacent picture).
-[[Image:Gràfica del arcsinus.png|right|thumb|The [[arcsine]] is a partial inverse of the [[sine]] function.]]
-These considerations are particularly important for defining the inverses of [[trigonometric functions]]. For example, the [[sine function]] is not one-to-one, since
-: <math>\sin(x + 2\pi) = \sin(x)</math>
-for every real {{mvar|x}} (and more generally {{math|1= sin(''x'' + 2{{pi}}''n'') = sin(''x'')}} for every [[integer]] {{mvar|n}}). However, the sine is one-to-one on the interval
-{{closed-closed|−{{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}, {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}}}, and the corresponding partial inverse is called the [[arcsine]]. This is considered the principal branch of the inverse sine, so the principal value of the inverse sine is always between −{{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}} and {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}. The following table describes the principal branch of each inverse trigonometric function:<ref>{{harvnb|Briggs|Cochran|2011|loc=pp. 39–42}}</ref>
-: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
-|-
-!function
-!Range of usual [[principal value]]
-|-
-| arcsin || {{math|−{{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}} ≤ sin<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') ≤ {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}}}
-|-
-| arccos || {{math|0 ≤ cos<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') ≤ {{pi}}}}
-|-
-| arctan || {{math|−{{sfrac|π|2}} < tan<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') < {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}}}
-|-
-| arccot || {{math|0 < cot<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') < {{pi}}}}
-|-
-| arcsec || {{math|0 ≤ sec<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') ≤ {{pi}}}}
-|-
-| arccsc || {{math|−{{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}} ≤ csc<sup>−1</sup>(''x'') ≤ {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}}}
-|-
-|}
-===Left and right inverses===
-Left and right inverses are not necessarily the same. If {{mvar|g}} is a left inverse for {{mvar|f}}, then {{mvar|g}} may or may not be a right inverse for {{mvar|f}}; and if {{mvar|g}} is a right inverse for {{mvar|f}}, then {{mvar|g}} is not necessarily a left inverse for {{mvar|f}}. For example, let {{math|''f'': '''R''' &rarr; {{closed-open|0, ∞}}}} denote the squaring map, such that {{math|1=''f''(''x'') = ''x''<sup>2</sup>}} for all {{mvar|x}} in {{math|'''R'''}}, and let  {{math|{{mvar|g}}: {{closed-open|0, ∞}} &rarr; '''R'''}} denote the square root map, such that {{math|''g''(''x'') {{=}} }}{{radic|{{mvar|x}}}} for all {{math|''x'' ≥ 0}}. Then {{math|1=''f''(''g''(''x'')) = ''x''}} for all {{mvar|x}} in {{closed-open|0, ∞}}; that is, {{mvar|g}} is a right inverse to {{mvar|f}}. However, {{mvar|g}} is not a left inverse to {{mvar|f}}, since, e.g., {{math|1=''g''(''f''(−1)) = 1 ≠ −1}}.
-====Left inverses====
-If {{math|''f'': ''X'' → ''Y''}}, a '''left inverse''' for {{mvar|f}} (or ''[[retract (category theory)|retraction]]'' of {{mvar|f}} ) is a function {{math| ''g'': ''Y'' → ''X''}} such that composing {{mvar|f}} with {{mvar|g}} from the left gives the identity function{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}:
-: <math>g \circ f = \operatorname{id}_X . </math>
-That is, the function {{mvar|g}} satisfies the rule
-: If <math>f(x) = y</math>, then <math>g(y) = x .</math>
-Thus, {{mvar|g}} must equal the inverse of {{mvar|f}} on the image of {{mvar|f}}, but may take any values for elements of {{mvar|Y}} not in the image.
-A function {{mvar|f}} is injective if and only if it has a left inverse or is the empty function.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
-: If {{mvar|g}} is the left inverse of {{mvar|f}}, then {{mvar|f}} is injective. If {{math|f(x) {{=}} f(y)}}, then <math>g(f(x)) = g(f(y)) = x = y</math>.
-: If {{math|f: X→Y}} is injective, {{mvar|f}} either is the empty function ({{math|''X'' {{=}} ∅}}) or has a left inverse {{math|g: ''Y'' → ''X''}} ({{math|X ≠ ∅)}}, which can be constructed as follows: for all {{math|y ∈ Y}}, if {{mvar|y}} is in the image of {{mvar|f}} (there exists {{math|x ∈ X}} such that {{math|f(x){{=}}y}}), let {{math|g(y){{=}}x}} ({{mvar|x}} is unique because {{mvar|f}} is injective); otherwise, let {{math|g(y)}} be an arbitrary element of {{mvar|X}}. For all {{math|x ∈ X}}, {{math|f(x)}} is in the image of {{mvar|f}}, so {{math|g(f(x)) {{=}} x}} by above, so {{mvar|g}} is a left inverse of {{mvar|f}}.
-In classical mathematics, every injective function {{mvar|f}} with a nonempty domain necessarily has a left inverse; however, this may fail in [[constructive mathematics]]. For instance, a left inverse of the inclusion {{math|{0,1} → '''R'''}} of the two-element set in the reals violates [[indecomposability (constructive mathematics)|indecomposability]] by giving a [[Retract (category theory)|retraction]] of the real line to the set {{math|{0,1} }}.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
-====Right inverses====
-[[File:Right inverse with surjective function.svg|thumb|Example of '''right inverse''' with non-injective, surjective function]]
-A '''right inverse''' for {{mvar|f}} (or ''[[section (category theory)|section]]'' of {{mvar|f}} ) is a function {{math| ''h'': ''Y'' → ''X''}} such that{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
-: <math>f \circ h = \operatorname{id}_Y . </math>
-That is, the function {{mvar|h}} satisfies the rule
-: If <math>\displaystyle h(y) = x</math>, then <math>\displaystyle f(x) = y .</math>
-Thus, {{math|''h''(''y'')}} may be any of the elements of {{mvar|X}} that map to {{mvar|y}} under {{mvar|f}}.
-A function {{mvar|f}} has a right inverse if and only if it is surjective (though constructing such an inverse in general requires the [[axiom of choice]]).
-: If {{mvar|h}} is the right inverse of {{mvar|f}}, then {{mvar|f}} is surjective. For all <math>y \in Y</math>, there is <math>x = h(y)</math> such that <math>f(x) = f(h(y)) = y</math>.
-: If {{mvar|f}} is surjective, {{mvar|f}} has a right inverse {{mvar|h}}, which can be constructed as follows: for all <math>y \in Y</math>, there is at least one <math>x \in X</math> such that <math>f(x) = y</math> (because {{mvar|f}} is surjective), so we choose one to be the value of {{math|h(y)}}.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
-====Two-sided inverses====
-An inverse that is both a left and right inverse (a '''two-sided inverse'''), if it exists, must be unique. In fact, if a function has a left inverse and a right inverse, they are both the same two-sided inverse, so it can be called '''the inverse'''.
-: If <math>g</math> is a left inverse and <math>h</math> a right inverse of <math>f</math>, for all <math>y \in Y</math>, <math>g(y) = g(f(h(y)) = h(y)</math>.
-A function has a two-sided inverse if and only if it is bijective.
-: A bijective function {{mvar|f}} is injective, so it has a left inverse (if {{mvar|f}} is the empty function, <math>f\colon \empty \to \empty</math> is its own left inverse). {{mvar|f}} is surjective, so it has a right inverse. By the above, the left and right inverse are the same.
-: If {{mvar|f}} has a two-sided inverse {{mvar|g}}, then {{mvar|g}} is a left inverse and right inverse of {{mvar|f}}, so {{mvar|f}} is injective and surjective.
-===Preimages===
-If {{math|''f'': ''X'' → ''Y''}} is any function (not necessarily invertible), the '''preimage''' (or '''inverse image''') of an element {{math| ''y'' &isin; ''Y''}}, is the set of all elements of {{mvar|X}} that map to {{mvar|y}}:{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}
-: <math>f^{-1}(\{y\}) = \left\{ x\in X : f(x) = y \right\} . </math>
-The preimage of {{mvar|y}} can be thought of as the [[image (mathematics)|image]] of {{mvar|y}} under the (multivalued) full inverse of the function {{mvar|f}}.
-Similarly, if {{mvar|S}} is any [[subset]] of {{mvar|Y}}, the preimage of {{mvar|S}}, denoted <math>f^{-1}(S) </math>,<ref name=":0" /> is the set of all elements of {{mvar|X}} that map to {{mvar|S}}:
-: <math>f^{-1}(S) = \left\{ x\in X : f(x) \in S \right\} . </math>
-For example, take a function {{math|''f'': '''R''' → '''R'''}}, where {{math|''f'': ''x'' ↦ ''x''<sup>2</sup>}}. This function is not invertible for reasons discussed in {{Section link||Example: Squaring and square root functions}}. Yet preimages may be defined for subsets of the codomain:
-: <math>f^{-1}(\left\{1,4,9,16\right\}) = \left\{-4,-3,-2,-1,1,2,3,4\right\}</math>
-The preimage of a single element {{math| ''y'' &isin; ''Y''}} – a [[singleton set]] {{math|{''y''} }} – is sometimes called the ''[[fiber (mathematics)|fiber]]'' of {{mvar|y}}. When {{mvar|Y}} is the set of real numbers, it is common to refer to {{math|''f''<sup> −1</sup>({''y''})}} as a ''[[level set]]''.
-==Notes==
-{{reflist|group="nb"|refs=
-<ref group="nb" name="NB1">It is a common practice, when no ambiguity can arise, to leave off the term "function" and just refer to an "inverse".</ref>
-<ref group="nb" name="NB2">Not to be confused with numerical exponentiation such as taking the multiplicative inverse of a nonzero real number.</ref>
-<ref group="nb" name="NB3">So this term is never used in this convention.</ref>
-}}
 ==References==
@@ Line 244: / Line 81: @@
 # Wolf 1998, p. 198
 # Fletcher & Patty 1988, p. 116, Theorem 5.1
-# Lay 2006, p. 69, Example 7.24
-# Thomas 1972, pp. 304–309
-# Korn, Grandino Arthur; Korn, Theresa M. (2000) [1961]. "21.2.-4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions". Mathematical handbook for scientists and engineers: Definitions, theorems, and formulars for reference and review (3 ed.). Mineola, New York, USA: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 811. ISBN 978-0-486-41147-7.
-# Oldham, Keith B.; Myland, Jan C.; Spanier, Jerome (2009) [1987]. An Atlas of Functions: with Equator, the Atlas Function Calculator (2 ed.). Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-48807-3. ISBN 978-0-387-48806-6. LCCN 2008937525.
 # Wolf 1998, p. 208, Theorem 7.2
 # Smith, Eggen & St. Andre 2006, pg. 141 Theorem 3.3(a)
 # Lay 2006, p. 71, Theorem 7.26
-# Briggs & Cochran 2011, pp. 39–42
-== Bibliography ==
-* Briggs, William; Cochran, Lyle (2011). Calculus / Early Transcendentals Single Variable. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-66414-3.
-* Devlin, Keith J. (2004). Sets, Functions, and Logic / An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics (3 ed.). Chapman & Hall / CRC Mathematics. ISBN 978-1-58488-449-1.
-* Fletcher, Peter; Patty, C. Wayne (1988). Foundations of Higher Mathematics. PWS-Kent. ISBN 0-87150-164-3.
-* Lay, Steven R. (2006). Analysis / With an Introduction to Proof (4 ed.). Pearson / Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-148101-5.
-* Smith, Douglas; Eggen, Maurice; St. Andre, Richard (2006). A Transition to Advanced Mathematics (6 ed.). Thompson Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-0-534-39900-9.
-* Thomas, Jr., George Brinton (1972). Calculus and Analytic Geometry Part 1: Functions of One Variable and Analytic Geometry (Alternate ed.). Addison-Wesley.
-* Wolf, Robert S. (1998). Proof, Logic, and Conjecture / The Mathematician's Toolbox. W. H. Freeman and Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-3050-7.