Dot Products and Orthogonality

We first consider orthogonal projection onto a line. To orthogonally project a vector ${\vec {v}}$ onto a line $\ell$, mark the point on the line at which someone standing on that point could see ${\vec {v}}$ by looking straight up or down (from that person's point of view).

The picture shows someone who has walked out on the line until the tip of ${\vec {v}}$ is straight overhead. That is, where the line is described as the span of some nonzero vector $\ell =\{c\cdot {\vec {s}}\,{\big |}\,c\in \mathbb {R} \}$, the person has walked out to find the coefficient $c_{\vec {p}}\,$ with the property that ${\vec {v}}-c_{\vec {p}}\cdot {\vec {s}}\,$ is orthogonal to $c_{\vec {p}}\cdot {\vec {s}}$.

We can solve for this coefficient by noting that because ${\vec {v}}-c_{\vec {p}}{\vec {s}}\,$ is orthogonal to a scalar multiple of ${\vec {s}}\,$ it must be orthogonal to ${\vec {s}}\,$ itself, and then the consequent fact that the dot product $({\vec {v}}-c_{\vec {p}}{\vec {s}})\cdot {\vec {s}}\,$ is zero gives that $c_{\vec {p}}={\vec {v}}\cdot {\vec {s}}/{\vec {s}}\cdot {\vec {s}}$.

Definition 1.1

The orthogonal projection of ${\vec {v}}$ onto the line spanned by a nonzero ${\vec {s}}\,$ is this vector.

${\mbox{proj}}_{[{\vec {s}}\,]}({\vec {v}})={\frac {{\vec {v}}\cdot {\vec {s}}}{{\vec {s}}\cdot {\vec {s}}}}{\vec {s}}$

Remark 1.2

The wording of that definition says "spanned by ${\vec {s}}\,$" instead the more formal "the span of the set $\{{\vec {s}}\,\}$". This casual first phrase is common.

Example 1.3

To orthogonally project the vector ${\binom {2}{3}}$ onto the line $y=2x$, we first pick a direction vector for the line. For instance,

${\vec {s}}={\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}$

will do. Then the calculation is routine.

${\frac {{\begin{pmatrix}2\\3\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}}{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}={\displaystyle {\frac {8}{5}}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\2\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}8/5\\16/5\end{pmatrix}}$

Example 1.4

In $\mathbb {R} ^{3}$, the orthogonal projection of a general vector

${\begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}$

onto the $y$-axis is

${\frac {{\begin{pmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}}{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}0\\y\\0\end{pmatrix}}$

which matches our intuitive expectation.

The picture above with the stick figure walking out on the line until ${\vec {v}}$'s tip is overhead is one way to think of the orthogonal projection of a vector onto a line. We finish this subsection with two other ways.

Example 1.5

A railroad car left on an east-west track without its brake is pushed by a wind blowing toward the northeast at fifteen miles per hour; what speed will the car reach?

For the wind we use a vector of length $15$ that points toward the northeast.

${\vec {v}}={\begin{pmatrix}15{\sqrt {1/2}}\\15{\sqrt {1/2}}\end{pmatrix}}$

The car can only be affected by the part of the wind blowing in the east-west direction— the part of ${\vec {v}}$ in the direction of the $x$-axis is this (the picture has the same perspective as the railroad car picture above).

$\displaystyle {\vec {p}}={\begin{pmatrix}15{\sqrt {1/2}}\\0\end{pmatrix}}$

So the car will reach a velocity of $15{\sqrt {1/2}}$ miles per hour toward the east.

Thus, another way to think of the picture that precedes the definition is that it shows ${\vec {v}}$ as decomposed into two parts, the part with the line (here, the part with the tracks, ${\vec {p}}$), and the part that is orthogonal to the line (shown here lying on the north-south axis). These two are "not interacting" or "independent", in the sense that the east-west car is not at all affected by the north-south part of the wind (see Problem 5). So the orthogonal projection of ${\vec {v}}$ onto the line spanned by ${\vec {s}}\,$ can be thought of as the part of ${\vec {v}}\,$ that lies in the direction of ${\vec {s}}$.

Finally, another useful way to think of the orthogonal projection is to have the person stand not on the line, but on the vector that is to be projected to the line. This person has a rope over the line and pulls it tight, naturally making the rope orthogonal to the line.

That is, we can think of the projection ${\vec {p}}\,$ as being the vector in the line that is closest to ${\vec {v}}$ (see Problem 11).

Example 1.6

A submarine is tracking a ship moving along the line $y=3x+2$. Torpedo range is one-half mile. Can the sub stay where it is, at the origin on the chart below, or must it move to reach a place where the ship will pass within range?

The formula for projection onto a line does not immediately apply because the line doesn't pass through the origin, and so isn't the span of any ${\vec {s}}$. To adjust for this, we start by shifting the entire map down two units. Now the line is $y=3x$, which is a subspace, and we can project to get the point ${\vec {p}}$ of closest approach, the point on the line through the origin closest to

${\vec {v}}={\begin{pmatrix}0\\-2\end{pmatrix}}$

the sub's shifted position.

${\vec {p}}={\frac {{\begin{pmatrix}0\\-2\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\end{pmatrix}}}{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\end{pmatrix}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\end{pmatrix}}}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}-3/5\\-9/5\end{pmatrix}}$

The distance between ${\vec {v}}$ and ${\vec {p}}$ is approximately $0.63$ miles and so the sub must move to get in range.

This subsection has developed a natural projection map: orthogonal projection onto a line. As suggested by the examples, it is often called for in applications. The next subsection shows how the definition of orthogonal projection onto a line gives us a way to calculate especially convienent bases for vector spaces, again something that is common in applications. The final subsection completely generalizes projection, orthogonal or not, onto any subspace at all.

Licensing

Content obtained and/or adapted from:

• Orthogonal Projection Onto a Line, Wikibooks: Linear Algebra under a CC BY-SA license